KEYWORDS

writing center theory/philosophy; scaffolding feedback/approaches; writing in the disciplines/writing across the curriculum; writer’s identities; tutor ethos/persona; writing process; global/higher order/higher gravity concerns

ABSTRACT

This training plan focuses on equipping peer writing tutors with strategies grounded in cognitive psychology: in other words, the science of learning. Drawing from readings including Make it Stick (Brown et al., 2014) and Range (Epstein, 2019) the plan first encourages writing tutors to explore concepts such as retrieval practice, interleaving, and metacognition that improve memory and retention, and consider how to apply these concepts to writing center sessions. Second, the plan focuses on the specific concept of "kind" and "wicked" learning environments to prompt tutors to adapt their feedback techniques to these environments. 

Participants engage with worksheets that link theoretical findings to writing center practices, helping them identify strategies to support students adapting to the demands of college-level writing. Materials include readings, two worksheets to guide activities for applying science of learning concepts to tutoring sessions, and tutor reflections. The training aims to enhance writing tutors' ability to provide actionable feedback, foster student independence, and collaborate across disciplines. Feedback from participants indicates that tutors value the emphasis on thinking about their own learning processes and strategies to improve student learning processes, reporting improved confidence and effectiveness in their tutoring approaches.

CONTENTS

TRAINING DETAILS

LESSON OVERVIEW

This training was designed to encourage tutors to zoom out and consider writing center work in a larger context of teaching and learning. Writing is a core practice in education because it promotes long-term learning through active engagement with material, critical and analytical thinking, and communication. The processes of academic writing are reflected in the findings from cognitive science (also referred to in this lesson as the science of learning) that show that the effort and tasks required to produce effective writing also produce deeper understanding and retention of content. The activities and discussions in the training help tutors develop more creative and interdisciplinary approaches to writing tutoring by applying concepts from outside the field of writing studies.

Brown et al. (2014) uses cognitive science to explain strategies for better learning and retention, and Epstein (2019) covers benefits of interdisciplinary approaches to creativity and problem solving. Additionally, conversations about cognitive science help writing tutors evaluate their own learning and improve their personal strategies and practice!  Writing tutors can use what they learn in this training to structure sessions to include feedback strategies that will help students learn, retain, and practice skills in “kind” and “wicked” learning environments while reinforcing good writing processes. For example, a tutor might give direct feedback on a grammar rule and then ask the student to implement the rule later in the session to prompt recall that will improve retention. Or, for early stages of the writing process, a tutor might help a student develop a drafting and revision plan that encourages spacing and interleaving reading to help them better incorporate research into the writing process. 

This training was designed for a one-credit course titled “Best Practices in Supporting Peer Writers” that is required for writing tutors at our institution. This training complements existing training activities that support tutors in STEM, languages, business, and healthcare. So, the training can be adapted to audiences of tutors who provide support for multiple subjects and those who tutor both writing and content. This specific lesson plan comes around the halfway mark of the semester, when writing tutors will already have some knowledge of writing center theory and experience from tutoring sessions. 

Regis University’s writing center is embedded in The Learning Commons, an academic support unit that provides tutoring across the curriculum. The tutoring staff includes undergraduates, graduates, and professional tutors. Some tutors provide support for multiple subjects—for example, writing tutors who also tutor nursing—so many of our tutors must be well versed in both writing center theory and study skills. To provide consistent and effective tutoring support in the department, this training emphasizes academic skills and strategies that can be integrated into appointments in all the subjects provided by the staff.  While the training was designed with the specific needs of our larger center in mind, asking writing tutors to apply concepts and research findings from outside the field of writing center studies promotes critical and creative thinking about writing center practice no matter the context. If the materials presented below seem too intensive for one training session, they can easily be split or excerpted to suit the needs of specific writing centers and their training practices.

LEARNING OUTCOMES/OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this training, tutors should be able to:

• Articulate the effectiveness of learning strategies identified in the readings about the science of learning and explain how to apply these concepts and strategies in writing center sessions.
• Incorporate feedback effectively, guiding students on how to apply these strategies in their own improvement as writers, particularly in different course contexts.
• Identify and critique ineffective writing practices and guide students toward using more evidence-based approaches for academic success as writers or in other introductory courses.
• Design strategies that integrate science of learning concepts into writing center sessions, fostering deeper learning for both the writing tutor and the student.

INSTRUCTIONAL PLAN

OVERVIEW

This lesson includes five sections: 

• Pre-Session Reading: tutors are getting the foundation in these concepts
• Introduction: tutors are establishing relationship between writing tutoring and the study of learning 
• Activity 1: tutors are applying these concepts from the study of learning to writing tutoring and designing strategies for tutoring sessions
• Activity 2: tutors are exploring how they'd apply these strategies differently in kind vs. wicked environments
• Conclusion: tutors are reflecting on how they will apply these concepts in their own consulting practices

Facilitators will benefit from either completing the activities in advance and sharing some of their thoughts with the writing tutors during the discussion OR participating in the activity during the session. Forecasting possible answers to the questions will help facilitate discussion but allow for flexibility so that tutors’ critical thinking is allowed to develop and creative ideas given room to breathe. 

Facilitators should read and use the Science of Learning Facilitator Guide to support and scaffold throughout both activities. The guide includes a cheat sheet that provides takeaways from Make it Stick, definitions for kind vs. wicked learning environments, and a few examples of discussions related to each. 

LESSON

Pre-Session Readings and Reflection Questions     

We recommend that facilitators share the chapters (or share the videos) and the reflection questions (below) with participants prior to the training. All participants and facilitators should read the chapters (or watch the videos if using those instead) prior to the training and come prepared, having considered these reflection questions:      

• How do the findings from the science of learning, particularly those outlined in Make it Stick, relate to writing center theory?
• Do you consider writing to be a "kind" or "wicked" learning environment? Why?
• Which strategies from the readings would you integrate into your tutoring practice to help students improve their writing skills?

Introduction (engagement and activation of prior knowledge)

The introduction of the session aims to set the stage for a deeper dive into the science of learning. and its relevance to writing tutoring. During this introductory portion, facilitators should:

• Introduce the key concepts from the readings (e.g., cognitive psychology principles, kind vs. wicked learning environments), either through discussion with tutors (based on their reading) or by sharing those concepts in a PowerPoint.     
• Engage tutors’ prior knowledge by having them reflect on earlier training related to writing center practices, such as non-directive feedback.
• Use the reflection questions above, particularly the second and third questions, as a place to begin this conversation, and think about the ways the readings intersect with their previous tutoring experiences.
• Encourage critical thinking by asking tutors to consider the implications of cognitive psychology on their tutoring practice, using the readings as a backdrop.
• Use the reflection questions above, particularly the first and third questions, to begin and guide this conversation. 

The next parts of the session focus on engaging tutors with active learning activities designed to promote application of cognitive science principles to real-world tutoring scenarios.

Activity 1: Collaborative Discussion on Cognitive Psychology Findings

Tutors will work individually and in small groups (think, pair, share) to review ten key findings from Make it Stick and brainstorm ways each could be applied to writing center sessions, using the worksheet. These findings include:

• Learning is more effective when it requires effort (i.e., the desirable difficulty principle).
• Retrieval practice and spaced repetition are more effective than rereading and mass practice.
• The myth of "learning styles"—why it’s better to go wide with strategies rather than stick to a single approach.
• Interleaving various types of writing tasks and practice improves retention.
• Feedback should be immediate and actionable—otherwise, it hinders learning.

The goal is for tutors to walk away with practical strategies for applying these findings to their tutoring sessions, such as using retrieval practice to help students remember key writing concepts.

This activity should take about 30-40 minutes. Ten minutes for individual work (which students prepared for), 10-15 for small group discussion for small group (2-4 members discussion) and 10-15 for sharing in whole group and documenting on white board or a shared online document.

Activity 2: Applying "Kind vs. Wicked" Learning Environments to Writing

Using a worksheet that lists various dimensions of the writing process (e.g., brainstorming, drafting, revising), tutors will reflect on whether each aspect of writing is better understood as a kind or wicked learning environment. Drawing from Hogarth's framework (as articulated in Epstein), tutors will categorize each phase and discuss how feedback can be adjusted to suit each type of environment.

Discussion Focus:

• In “kind” environments (e.g., grammar or mechanical errors), feedback is clear, immediate, and direct.
• In “wicked” environments (e.g., organizing a complex essay or engaging in critical analysis), feedback is more nuanced, iterative, and dialogic.

This activity encourages tutors to adapt their approach to feedback depending on the type of challenge a student faces. Also, the dimensions above are not always clearcut. Some writing tutors will make interesting arguments about when, where, and what kind of feedback they provide. Context, audience, and genre play a strong role in analyzing the “learning environment” of writing and deciding how to categorize it.
Use the think, pair, share model as above.

Conclusion     

Facilitators should share the Science of Learning Training Reflection Handout with tutors, and give tutors time to write responses to those reflections and submit them to the facilitator; this can be immediately following the activity, or in their next available shift. 

ASSESSING FOR UNDERSTANDING

There is one formal assessment related to this activity: 

• Post-Session Reflections: Tutors will submit the Science of Learning Training Reflection handout at the end of the session, reflecting on which principles they plan to implement in their tutoring sessions and why.

Following the training, facilitators should  engage several informal measures to gauge tutors' understanding of the material:

• Ongoing Observation & Feedback: Tutors will be observed in subsequent tutoring sessions to assess whether they are applying the strategies discussed, particularly around feedback and student engagement.
• Follow-up Training Sessions: The training will be reinforced through future professional development opportunities, such as workshops on using AI tools in tutoring or more focused sessions on effective test-taking strategies.
• Exit Interviews/Surveys: Tutors participate in an exit interview at the end of the training to share their thoughts on the usefulness of the session and any areas where they feel further clarification is needed.

By continuously assessing tutors through reflections, observations, and follow-up training, facilitators can ensure that the training has a lasting impact and that tutors are successfully applying these principles to their practice.

The two readings need not be used in conjunction; the exercise can be pared down to one or the other. Furthermore, if your training schedule cannot accommodate outside readings, a short introduction via lecture or the videos provided can convey the essential concepts.

The training as described is in person, but it can be adapted for synchronous online delivery by distributing the materials digitally, asking participants to review the readings or videos prior to the meeting, and then using functions like breakout rooms on Zoom to facilitate the think-pair-share format. It could be adapted to be asynchronous online delivery using a discussion post platform and soliciting reflection responses.

In the future, we plan to extend the exercise by asking tutors to apply the concepts to a model paper or in a mock session.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

We have used other readings from this vein of research with tutors in other contexts. We have received positive reports from tutors on the following: 

• Dunlosky, J. (2013). Strengthening the student toolbox: Study strategies to boost learning. American Educator, 37(3), 12–21.
• Ericsson, A. K., & Pool, R. (2016). Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
• Willingham, D. T. (2023). Outsmart your brain: Why learning is hard and how you can make it easy. Gallery Books.

REFERENCES

Brown, P. C., Roediger, H. L., III, & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Introduction: Learning is misunderstood. Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Harvard University Press

Epstein, D. (2019). Introduction: Roger vs. Tiger. Range: Why generalists triumph in a specialized world, Riverhead Books.

Epstein, D. (2019). Learning, fast and slow. Range: Why generalists triumph in a specialized world. Riverhead Books.

Ericsson, K.A., & Pool, R. (2016). Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Hogarth, R. (2001). Educating intuition. University of Chicago Press.

Productivity Game. (2018, November 12). How to study: MAKE IT STICK by P. Brown, M. McDaniel, & H. Roediger III | Core Message. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/MfylloWuuZU?si=RDF3y5Ly2_nbQ9et

Productivity Game. (2019, November 3). RANGE by David Epstein | Core Message. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/p4rP8CGaVDY?si=kKk5QzzwVz3lBB1y

Severino, C. (2015). Writing centers as linguistic contact zones. In B. Rafoth (Ed.), A tutor's guide: Helping writers one to one (2nd ed., pp. 41–53). Utah State University Press.

TED. (2020, September 21). Why specializing early doesn’t always mean career success | David Epstein [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/B6lBtiQZSho?si=zqKkIqgCi_WsnRIx

Wingate, M. (2015). What line? In B. Rafoth (Ed.), A tutor's guide: Helping writers one to one (2nd ed., pp. 9–16). Utah State University Press.

Willingham, D.T. (2023). Outsmart your brain: Why learning is hard and how you can make it easy. Gallery Books.

AUTHOR INFORMATION

CharLee Toth & Michael Ennis

Regis University

CharLee Toth is the associate director of The Learning Commons at Regis University where she worked as a writing tutor as an undergraduate. In addition to writing, she manages tutors for subjects in STEM, the health sciences, and humanities. Her interest in researching learning and metacognition aims to provide tutor training to strengthen academic support across the curriculum. Toth also teaches first-year writing seminars and facilitates academic success workshops for a variety of student groups.

Michael Ennis is the director of The Learning Commons at Regis University. He taught writing, history, and comparative literature at Duke University, Elon University, and CU-Boulder before coming to Regis. 

Toth & Ennis, Center Moves, no. 4, 2025.